While the exact cause of penile cancer is not fully understood, several risk factors are linked to its development:
1. Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Infection: HPV is a common sexually transmitted infection that increases the risk of penile cancer.
2. Smoking: Tobacco use can damage DNA in cells and contribute to the development of penile cancer.
3. Poor Hygiene: Lack of proper cleaning, especially in men who are not circumcised, may increase the risk of infections and cancer.
4. Phimosis: A condition where the foreskin is tight and difficult to retract can increase the risk of inflammation and cancer.
5. Age: Men over 60 are at higher risk of penile cancer.
6. Weakened Immune System: Men with a weakened immune system, such as those with HIV, are at greater risk.

Penile cancer may present with a range of symptoms, including:
• A growth or sore on the penis, usually on the foreskin or glans
• Changes in skin color or thickness on the penis
• A lump on the penis or under the foreskin
• Persistent redness or rash on the penis
• Bleeding or discharge from the penis
• Swollen lymph nodes in the groin area
If any of these symptoms persist, it is important to seek medical attention promptly.

While penile cancer cannot be completely prevented, certain steps can reduce the risk:
1. Practice Good Hygiene: Regular cleaning of the penis, especially in uncircumcised men, can help prevent infections and reduce cancer risk.
2. Get Vaccinated for HPV: The HPV vaccine can protect against the strains of HPV that are most commonly linked to penile cancer.
3. Quit Smoking: Avoiding tobacco products significantly reduces the risk of developing many types of cancer, including penile cancer.
4. Safe Sexual Practices: Using condoms and limiting the number of sexual partners can lower the risk of HPV infection, a major cause of penile cancer.

Treatment for penile cancer depends on the stage and type of cancer, as well as the patient’s overall health. Common treatment options include:
1. Surgery: This is the most common treatment and may involve removing the tumor, part of the penis (partial penectomy), or, in more severe cases, the entire penis (total penectomy).
2. Radiation Therapy: High-energy radiation is used to target and destroy cancer cells, often used in conjunction with surgery.
3. Chemotherapy: Chemotherapy drugs may be applied topically (for early-stage cancer) or administered intravenously for more advanced cases.
4. Laser Therapy: For small, surface-level tumors, lasers may be used to remove cancerous tissue.
5. Immunotherapy: This newer treatment boosts the body’s immune system to help fight cancer cells.